T. S. Andriamanantena, E. Ratsima, H. C. Rakotonirina, F. Randrianirina, L. Ramparany et al., Dissemination of multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii in various hospitals of Antananarivo Madagascar, Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob, vol.9, p.17, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00510777

T. Andriatahina, F. Randrianirina, E. R. Hariniana, A. Talarmin, H. Raobijaona et al.,

, Infect Dis, vol.10, p.204

L. Armand-lefevre, E. Ruppé, A. , and A. , ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in travellers: doctors beware, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.17, pp.8-9, 2017.

O. Belmonte, H. Pailhoriès, M. Kempf, M. P. Gaultier, C. Lemarié et al., High prevalence of closely-related Acinetobacter baumannii in pets according to a multicentre study in veterinary clinics, Reunion Island, Vet Microbiol, vol.170, pp.446-450, 2014.

O. Belmonte, H. Pailhoriès, M. Kempf, M. P. Gaultier, H. Lotteau et al., Prevalence of multiresistant gram-negative bacteria in pets according to a cross-sectional study conducted in veterinary clinics, 2013.

G. Leipzig,

O. Belmonte, D. Drouet, J. Alba, M. P. Moiton, B. Kuli et al., , 2010.

, Pathol Biol, vol.58, pp.18-24

O. Belmonte, M. P. Moiton, D. Drouet, Y. Lefort, J. Alba et al., , 2008.

, Particularité de l'écologie bactérienne réunionnaise: actualité au Centre hospitalier Félix Guyon (CHFG). in: Société de pathologie infectieuse de langue française editor. Réunion Interdisciplinaire de Chimiothérapie Anti-Infectieuse, 2008.

R. A. Bonnin, L. Poirel, T. Benoit-cattin, and P. Nordmann, Ceftazidime-susceptible and imipenem-non-susceptible OXA-58-producing Acinetobacter baumannii from the Comoros archipelago, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.41, pp.297-298, 2013.

M. I. Issack, Antibiotic resistance among hospitalized patients in Mauritius in 2014, 17 th International Congress on Infectious Diseases, vol.45, pp.1-477, 2016.

M. I. Issack, Antibiotic resistance among gastrointestinal and respiratory tract bacterial pathogens in Mauritius, 17 th International Congress on Infectious Diseases, vol.45, pp.1-477, 2016.

M. I. Issack, R. S. Hendriksen, E. Hyytiä-trees, C. A. Svendsen, and M. Mikoleit, , 2014.

, Emergence and clonal dissemination of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis causing salmonellosis in Mauritius, J Infect Dev Ctries, vol.8, pp.454-460

M. I. Issack and S. S. Manraj, Antibiotic susceptibility of bacteria isolated from hospitalised patients in Mauritius, Center for Disease Dynamics Economics and Policy editor, 2011.

, Global Forum on Bacterial Infections: Balancing Treatment Access and Antibiotic Resistance, 2011.

M. I. Issack, . Yee-kin, H. Y. Tet, and P. Morlat, Antimicrobial resistance among enterobacteriaceae causing uncomplicated urinary tract infections in Mauritius: consequences of past misuse of antibiotics, J Chemother, vol.19, pp.222-225, 2007.

K. Jeannot, O. Belmonte, D. Fournier, R. Robert-nicoud, E. Müller et al., , 2012.

, Epidémiologie des ?-lactamases à spectre élargi (BLSE) et des carbapénèmases chez Pseudomonas aeruginosa sur l'île de la Réunion

A. G. Kahsay and S. Muthupandian, A review on Sero diversity and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Shigella species in Africa, Asia and South America, vol.9, p.422, 2001.

C. Kliebe, B. A. Nies, J. F. Meyer, R. M. Tolxdorff-neutzling, and B. Wiedemann, Evolution of plasmid-coded resistance to broad-spectrum cephalosporins, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.28, pp.302-307, 1985.

R. Laxminarayan, A. Duse, C. Wattal, A. K. Zaidi, H. F. Wertheim et al., Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.13, pp.1057-1098, 2013.

A. Liakopoulos, D. Mevius, and D. Ceccarelli, A Review of SHV Extended-Spectrum ?-Lactamases: Neglected Yet Ubiquitous, Front Microbiol, vol.7, p.1374, 2016.

Y. Y. Liu, Y. Wang, T. R. Walsh, L. X. Yi, R. Zhang et al., Emergence of plasmidmediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China: a microbiological and molecular biological study, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.16, issue.15, pp.424-431, 2016.

A. P. Magiorakos, A. Srinivasan, R. B. Carey, Y. Carmeli, M. E. Falagas et al., , 2012.

, Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, pp.268-281

L. F. Mccaig, L. C. Mcdonald, S. Mandal, and D. B. Jernigan, Staphylococcus aureusassociated skin and soft tissue infections in ambulatory care, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.12, pp.1715-1723, 2006.

V. Micheel, B. Hogan, R. A. Rakotoarivelo, R. Rakotozandrindrainy, F. Razafimanatsoa et al., Identification of nasal colonization with ?-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in patients, health care workers and students in Madagascar, Eur J Microbiol Immunol, vol.5, pp.116-125, 2015.

G. Miltgen, C. Avril, T. Benoit-cattin, R. A. Bonnin, M. Tamime et al., Epidémie d'Enterobacter cloacae producteurs de carbapénèmases de type IMI-1 à Mayotte. in: Société de pathologie infectieuse de langue française editor, 2016.

G. Miltgen, E. Cardinale, N. Traversier, A. Marichal, M. C. Jaffar-bandjee et al., Prévalence des entérobactéries BLSE chez les animaux d'élevage sur plusieurs îles de l'Océan Indien, 2014.

, Réunion Interdisciplinaire de Chimiothérapie Anti-Infectieuse, 2014.

A. Moodley, E. C. Nightingale, M. Stegger, S. S. Nielsen, R. L. Skov et al., , 2008.

S. Env, Heal, vol.34, pp.151-157

M. E. Mulligan, K. A. Murray-leisure, B. S. Ribner, H. C. Standiford, J. F. John et al., Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a consensus review of the microbiology, pathogenesis, and epidemiology with implications for prevention and management, Am J Med, vol.94, pp.313-328, 1993.

B. E. Murray, Vancomycin-resistant enterococcal infections, N Engl J Med, vol.342, pp.710-721, 2000.

T. Naas, G. Cuzon, A. L. Robinson, Z. Andrianirina, P. Imbert et al., Neonatal infections with multidrug-resistant ESBL-producing E. cloacae and K. pneumoniae in Neonatal Units of two different Hospitals in Antananarivo, Madagascar. BMC Infect. Dis, vol.16, p.275, 2016.

O. Belmonte, D. Drouet, J. Alba, M. P. Moiton, B. Kuli et al.,

. Mc, Evolution of Enterobacteriaceae resistance to antibiotics in Reunion Island: emergence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases, Pathol Biol, vol.58, pp.18-24, 2010.

F. Bmr-raisin and . Résultats, Saint Maurice: Santé publique France, 2015.

, Commission de l'Océan Indien. Port Saint Louis, Rapport Annuel, 2015.

. Accessed, , 2018.

R. Colodner, W. Rock, B. Chazan, N. Keller, N. Guy et al., J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, vol.23, pp.163-167

M. S. Arcilla, Import and spread of extended-spectrum ?-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae by international travellers (COMBAT study): a prospective, multicentre cohort study, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.17, pp.78-85, 2017.

E. Ruppé, High Rate of Acquisition but Short Duration of Carriage of Multidrug-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae After Travel to the Tropics, Clin Infect Dis, vol.61, pp.593-600, 2015.

F. Chereau, P. Herindrainy, B. Garin, B. T. Huynh, F. Randrianirina et al., Colonization of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-and NDM-1, 2015.

, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.59, pp.3652-3655

A. M. Holman, A. J. Miltgen, G. Lugagne, N. Traversier, N. Picot et al.,

O. and A. N. , Surveillance of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the Indian Ocean Region between, Mad Mal Infect, vol.47, pp.333-339, 2010.

L. Dortet, G. Cuzon, and P. Nordmann, Dissemination of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in France, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, pp.623-627, 2012.

N. Gay, O. Belmonte, J. M. Collard, M. Halifa, M. I. Issack et al., Review of Antibiotic Resistance in the Indian Ocean Commission: A Human and Animal Health Issue, Front Public Health, vol.5, p.162, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01934609

H. Blaak, A. H. Van-hoek, R. A. Hamidjaja, R. Q. Van-der-plaats, L. Kerkhof-de-heer et al.,

, Distribution, Numbers, and Diversity of ESBL-Producing E. coli in the Poultry Farm Environment, PLoS One, vol.10, issue.8, p.135402, 2015.

R. J. Mesa, V. Blanc, A. R. Blanch, P. Cortes, J. J. Gonzalez et al., Extended-spectrum beta-lactamaseproducing Enterobacteriaceae in different environments (humans, food, animal farms and sewage

, Antimicrob Chemother, vol.58, issue.1, pp.211-216, 2006.

C. Ewers, A. Bethe, T. Semmler, S. Guenther, and L. H. Wieler, Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing and AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from livestock and companion animals, and their putative impact on public health: a global perspective, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, issue.7, pp.646-55, 2012.

M. A. Leverstein-van-hall, C. M. Dierikx, C. Stuart, J. Voets, G. M. Van-den-munckhof et al.,

A. Zandbergen, Dutch patients, retail chicken meat and poultry share the same ESBL genes, plasmids and strains, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.17, issue.6, pp.873-80, 2011.

E. Van-duijkeren, C. Wielders, C. M. Dierikx, A. Van-hoek, P. Hengeveld et al., Long-term carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in the general population in the Netherlands, Clin Infect Dis, 2017.

N. Grall, V. Lazarevic, N. Gaia, C. Couffignal, C. Laouenan et al.,

C. M. Dierikx, E. Van-duijkeren, A. H. Schoormans, A. Van-essen-zandbergen, K. Veldman et al.,

, Occurrence and characteristics of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-and AmpC-producing clinical isolates derived from companion animals and horses, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.67, issue.6, pp.1368-74, 2012.

P. Cortes, V. Blanc, A. Mora, G. Dahbi, J. E. Blanco et al., Isolation and characterization of potentially pathogenic antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli strains from chicken and pig farms in

. Spain, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.76, issue.9, pp.2799-805, 2010.

L. C. Snow, R. G. Warner, T. Cheney, H. Wearing, M. Stokes et al., Risk factors associated with extended spectrum beta-lactamase Escherichia coli (CTX-M) on dairy farms in North West England and North Wales, Prev Vet Med, vol.106, issue.3-4, pp.225-259, 2012.

, Chapitre 4 -Quels facteurs de risqued'occurrence d'EBLSE dans les élevages intensifs 101

A. M. Hammerum, J. Larsen, V. D. Andersen, C. H. Lester, S. Skytte et al.,

, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, issue.10, pp.2650-2657, 2014.

V. T. Nguyen, J. J. Carrique-mas, T. H. Ngo, H. M. Ho, T. T. Ha et al., Prevalence and risk factors for carriage of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli on household and small-scale chicken farms in the

, Mekong Delta of Vietnam, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.70, issue.7, pp.2144-52, 2015.

. Dgal and . Mayotte, Synthèse illustrée du recensement agricole 2010, 2011.

H. C. Rakotonirina, B. Garin, F. Randrianirina, V. Richard, A. Talarmin et al., Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant extended-spectrum ?-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolated in Antananarivo, Madagascar. BMC Microbiol, vol.13, p.85, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00835131

C. Dahms, N. O. Hubner, A. Kossow, A. Mellmann, K. Dittmann et al., Occurrence of ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli in Livestock and Farm Workers in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, PLoS One, vol.10, issue.11, p.143326, 2015.

M. Hiroi, F. Yamazaki, T. Harada, N. Takahashi, N. Iida et al., Prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in food-producing animals, J Vet Med Sci, vol.74, issue.2, pp.189-95, 2012.

C. H. Brower, S. Mandal, S. Hayer, M. Sran, A. Zehra et al., The Prevalence of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia Coli in Poultry Chickens and Variation According to Farming Practices in, Environ Health Perspect, vol.125, issue.7, p.77015, 2017.

A. Schmid, S. Hormansdorfer, U. Messelhausser, A. Kasbohrer, C. Sauter-louis et al., Prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli on Bavarian dairy and beef cattle farms

, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.79, issue.9, pp.3027-3059, 2013.

M. Rakotoharinome, D. Pognon, T. Randriamparany, J. C. Ming, J. P. Idoumbin et al., Prevalence of antimicrobial residues in pork meat in Madagascar, Trop Anim Health Prod, vol.46, issue.1, pp.49-55, 2014.

R. V. Pereira, J. D. Siler, J. C. Ng, M. A. Davis, Y. T. Grohn et al., Effect of on-farm use of antimicrobial drugs on resistance in fecal Escherichia coli of preweaned dairy calves, J Dairy Sci, vol.97, issue.12, p.7644, 2014.

T. P. Van-boeckel, C. Brower, M. Gilbert, B. T. Grenfell, S. A. Levin et al., Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.112, issue.18, pp.5649-54, 2015.

, Suivi des ventes de médicaments vétérinaires contenant des antibiotiques en France en, ANSES, 2015.

, Anses rapport annuel, 2016.

J. E. Hunter, J. C. Shelley, J. R. Walton, C. A. Hart, and M. Bennett, Apramycin resistance plasmids in Escherichia coli: possible transfer to Salmonella typhimurium in calves, Epidemiol Infect, vol.108, issue.2, pp.271-279, 1992.

T. M. Coque, F. Baquero, and R. Canton, Increasing prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in

, Europe. Euro Surveill, vol.13, issue.47, 2008.

T. W. Alexander, L. J. Yanke, and E. Topp,

, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.74, issue.14, pp.4405-4421, 2008.

I. Rodriguez, K. Thomas, A. Van-essen, A. K. Schink, M. Day et al., Chromosomal location of blaCTX-M genes in clinical isolates of Escherichia coli from Germany, The Netherlands and the UK, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.43, issue.6, pp.553-560, 2014.

A. Dorado-garcia, J. H. Smid, W. Van-pelt, M. Bonten, A. C. Fluit et al., Molecular relatedness of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from humans, animals, food and the environment: a pooled analysis, J Antimicrob Chemother, 2017.

P. M. Huijbers, E. A. Graat, A. P. Haenen, M. G. Van-santen, A. Van-essen-zandbergen et al.,

, Extended-spectrum and AmpC beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in broilers and people living and/or working on broiler farms: prevalence, risk factors and molecular characteristics, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, issue.10, pp.2669-75, 2014.

C. Dierikx, A. Van-essen-zandbergen, K. Veldman, H. Smith, and D. Mevius,

H. Park, Y. C. Hung, and R. E. Brackett, Antimicrobial effect of electrolyzed water for inactivating Campylobacter jejuni during poultry washing, Int J Food Microbiol, vol.72, issue.1-2, pp.77-83, 2002.

A. Q. Almakki, Résistance aux antibiotiques dans des eaux urbaines péri-hospitalières considérées dans un continuum hydrologique, vol.239, 2017.

, Liste des antibiotiques critiques : Actualisation 2015. Agence nationale de sécurité du médicament et des produits de santé, ANSM, vol.14, 2016.

S. Antenne, . Spot5, . Seas-oi, . Ird, and . Espace-dev,

O. Debaere, Ecoantibio : premier plan de réduction des risques d'antibiorésistance en médecine vétérinaire, Bull. Acad. Vét. France, vol.169, issue.3, pp.186-189, 2016.

N. Gay, O. Belmonte, J. M. Collard, M. Halifa, M. I. Issack et al., Review of Antibiotic Resistance in the Indian Ocean Commission: A Human and Animal Health Issue, vol.5, p.162, 2017.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01934609

N. Gay, A. Leclaire, M. Laval, G. Miltgen, M. Jego et al., Risk Factors of Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae Occurrence in Farms in Reunion, Madagascar and Mayotte Islands, 2016.

S. Guenther, J. Wuttke, A. Bethe, J. Vojtech, K. Schaufler et al., Is fecal carriage of extended-spectrum-?-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in urban rats a risk for public health?, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.57, pp.2424-2429, 2013.

V. Guernier, E. Lagadec, C. Cordonin, G. L. Minter, Y. Gomard et al., Human Leptospirosis on Reunion Island, Indian Ocean: Are Rodents the (Only) Ones to Blame?, PLoS Negl Trop Dis, vol.10, p.4733, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01371145

P. M. Hawkey, Prevalence and clonality of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Asia, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.14, issue.1, pp.159-65, 2008.

C. G. Himsworth, E. Zabek, A. Desruisseau, E. J. Parmley, R. Reid-smith et al.,

M. Patrick, In the Feces of Wild Urban Norway and Black Rats (Rattus Norvegicus and Rattus Rattus) from an Inner-City Neighborhood of Vancouver, Canada, J Wildl Dis, vol.51, pp.589-600, 2015.

N. Jazmati, R. Hein, and A. Hamprecht, Use of an Enrichment Broth Improves Detection of Extended-Spectrum-Beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Clinical Stool Samples, J Clin Microbiol, vol.54, pp.467-70, 2016.

G. K. Kozak, P. Boerlin, N. Janecko, R. J. Reid-smith, and C. Jardine, Antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from swine and wild small mammals in the proximity of swine farms and in natural environments in Ontario, Canada, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.75, pp.559-66, 2009.

E. Lagadec, Y. Gomard, G. L. Minter, C. Cordonin, E. Cardinale et al., Identification of Tenrec ecaudatus, a Wild Mammal Introduced to Mayotte Island, as a Reservoir of the Newly Identified Human Pathogenic Leptospira mayottensis, PLoS Negl Trop Dis, vol.10, p.4933, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01371143

I. Literak, M. Dolejska, A. Cizek, C. A. Djigo, A. Konecny et al., Reservoirs of antibioticresistant Enterobacteriaceae among animals sympatric to humans in SDenegal : extendedspectrum beta-lactamases in bacteria in a black rat ( Rattus rattus), African Journal of Microbiology Researcg, vol.3, pp.751-754, 2009.

A. P. Magiorakos, A. Srinivasan, R. B. Carey, Y. Carmeli, M. E. Falagas et al., Multidrug-resistant, extensively drugresistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, pp.268-81, 2012.

N. T. Nhung, N. V. Cuong, J. Campbell, N. T. Hoa, J. E. Bryant et al., High levels of antimicrobial resistance among escherichia coli isolates from livestock farms and synanthropic rats and shrews in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.81, pp.812-832, 2015.

S. Rahelinirina, J. M. Duplantier, J. Ratovonjato, O. Ramilijaona, M. Ratsimba et al., Study on the movement of Rattus rattus and evaluation of the plague dispersion in Madagascar, Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, vol.10, pp.77-84, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00836185

J. C. Russell, D. Ringler, A. Trombini, and M. Le-corre, The island syndrome and population dynamics of introduced rats, Oecologia, vol.167, pp.667-76, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00852827

K. Schaufler, K. Nowak, A. Dux, T. Semmler, L. Villa et al., Clinically Relevant ESBL-Producing K. pneumoniae ST307 and E. coli ST38 in an Urban West African Rat Population, p.150, 2018.

Y. Yom-tov and E. Geffen, Geographic variation in body size: the effects of ambient temperature and precipitation, Oecologia, vol.148, pp.213-221, 2006.

J. R. Zahar, E. Bille, D. Schnell, F. Lanternier, F. Mechai et al., Med Sci, vol.25, pp.939-983, 2009.

H. Akaike, Citation Classic -a New Look at the Statistical-Model Identification, Current Contents/Engineering Technology & Applied Sciences, pp.22-22, 1981.

M. Alsan, N. Kammili, J. Lakshmi, A. Xing, A. Khan et al., Poverty and Community-Acquired Antimicrobial Resistance with Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamase-Producing Organisms, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.24, pp.1490-96, 2018.

G. C. Amos, P. M. Hawkey, W. H. Gaze, and E. M. Wellington, Waste water effluent contributes to the dissemination of CTX-M-15 in the natural environment, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, pp.1785-91, 2014.

T. Andriatahina, F. Randrianirina, E. R. Hariniana, A. Talarmin, H. Raobijaona et al.,

. Richard, High prevalence of fecal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in a pediatric unit in Madagascar, BMC Infect Dis, vol.10, p.204, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00510748

P. I. Boon and M. Cattanach, Antibiotic resistance of native and faecal bacteria isolated from rivers, reservoirs and sewage treatment facilities in Victoria, south-eastern Australia, Lett Appl Microbiol, vol.28, pp.164-172, 1999.

F. Chereau, P. Herindrainy, B. Garin, B. T. Huynh, F. Randrianirina et al., Colonization of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-and NDM-1-producing Enterobacteriaceae among pregnant women in the community in a low-income country: a potential reservoir for transmission of multiresistant Enterobacteriaceae to neonates, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.59, pp.3652-3657, 2015.

M. De-been, V. F. Lanza, M. Toro, J. Scharringa, W. Dohmen et al.,

, PLoS Genet, vol.10, p.1004776

W. Dohmen, M. J. Bonten, M. E. Bos, S. Van-marm, J. Scharringa et al., Carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in pig farmers is associated with occurrence in pigs, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.21, pp.917-940, 2015.

A. Dorado-garcia, J. H. Smid, W. Van-pelt, M. J. Bonten, A. C. Fluit et al., Molecular relatedness of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from humans, animals, J Antimicrob Chemother, 2017.

P. Herindrainy, M. A. Rabenandrasana, Z. Z. Andrianirina, F. M. Rakotoarimanana, M. Padget et al.,

E. Huynh, . Delarocque-astagneau, . Birdy, and . Group, Acquisition of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae in neonates: A community based cohort in Madagascar, PLoS One, vol.13, p.193325, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01909314

P. Herindrainy, F. Randrianirina, R. Ratovoson, E. Hariniana, Y. Buisson et al., Rectal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamaseproducing gram-negative bacilli in community settings in Madagascar, PLoS One, vol.6, p.22738, 2011.

P. M. Huijbers, E. A. Graat, A. P. Haenen, M. G. Van-santen, A. Van-essen-zandbergen et al., Extended-spectrum and AmpC beta-lactamaseproducing Escherichia coli in broilers and people living and/or working on broiler farms: prevalence, risk factors and molecular characteristics, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, pp.2669-75, 2014.

B. T. Huynh, E. Kermorvant-duchemin, P. Herindrainy, M. Padget, F. M. Rakotoarimanana et al.,

D. Collard, E. Guillemot, and . Delarocque-astagneau, Bacterial Infections in Neonates, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.24, pp.710-727, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-01955491

M. Mendelson, J. A. Rottingen, U. Gopinathan, D. H. Hamer, H. Wertheim et al., Maximising access to achieve appropriate human antimicrobial use in low-income and middle-income countries, Lancet, vol.387, pp.188-98, 2016.

M. Nadimpalli, E. Delarocque-astagneau, D. C. Love, L. B. Price, B. T. Huynh et al., Infections Bacterial, and Group antibiotic-Resistant Diseases among Young children in low-income countries Study, Clin Infect Dis, vol.66, pp.963-69, 2018.

M. Nadimpalli, Y. Vuthy, A. De-lauzanne, L. Fabre, A. Criscuolo et al., Meat and Fish as Sources of Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli, p.25, 2019.

F. Randrianirina, L. Vaillant, C. E. Ramarokoto, A. Rakotoarijaona, M. L. Andriamanarivo et al.,

J. Razafimahandry, J. R. Randrianomenjanahary, E. R. Raveloson, J. F. Hariniana, A. Carod et al., Antimicrobial resistance in pathogens causing nosocomial infections in surgery and intensive care units of two hospitals in Antananarivo, Madagascar, J Infect Dev Ctries, vol.4, pp.74-82, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00836482

K. L. Tang, N. P. Caffrey, D. B. Nobrega, S. C. Cork, P. E. Ronksley et al., Restricting the use of antibiotics in foodproducing animals and its associations with antibiotic resistance in food-producing animals and human beings: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Lancet Planet Health, vol.1, pp.316-343, 2014.

M. Hordijk, Ainsi, la transmission interindividuelle d'EBLSE pourrait être réduite dans les élevages de bovins, 2013.

L. Réunion and . Mayotte,

M. Dorado-garcia, 'autres pays, hors SOOI, a été observée sans être quantifiée (Laure Dommergues, Coopadem, communication personnelle, 2016.

A. A. Abejew, A. A. Denboba, and A. G. Mekonnen, Prevalence and antibiotic resistance pattern of urinary tract bacterial infections in Dessie area, BMC Res Notes, vol.7, p.687, 2014.

E. P. Abraham and E. Chain, An enzyme from bacteria able to destroy penicillin. 1940, Rev Infect Dis, vol.10, issue.4, pp.677-678, 1988.

A. Adler, N. Sturlesi, N. Fallach, D. Zilberman-barzilai, O. Hussein et al., Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Transmission Dynamics of Extended-Spectrum-beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae: a National Survey of Cattle Farms in Israel in 2013, J Clin Microbiol, vol.53, issue.11, pp.3515-3521, 2015.

. Agisar, WHO Advisory Group on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance (AGISAR) Repot of the 7th meeting, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2018.

M. Aires-de-sousa, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among animals: current overview, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.23, issue.6, pp.373-380, 2017.

M. Alevizakos, S. Karanika, M. Detsis, and E. Mylonakis, Colonisation with extendedspectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae and risk for infection among patients with solid or haematological malignancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.48, issue.6, pp.647-654, 2016.

T. W. Alexander, G. D. Inglis, L. J. Yanke, E. Topp, R. R. Read et al., Farm-to-fork characterization of Escherichia coli associated with feedlot cattle with a known history of antimicrobial use, Int J Food Microbiol, vol.137, issue.1, pp.40-48, 2010.

A. B. Aliyu, A. A. Saleha, A. Jalila, and Z. Zunita, Risk factors and spatial distribution of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing-Escherichia coli at retail poultry meat markets in Malaysia: a cross-sectional study, BMC Public Health, vol.16, p.699, 2016.

S. Alnajar and R. S. Gupta, Phylogenomics and comparative genomic studies delineate six main clades within the family Enterobacteriaceae and support the reclassification of several polyphyletic members of the family, Infect Genet Evol, vol.54, pp.108-127, 2017.

G. Alvarez-uria, S. Gandra, and R. Laxminarayan, Poverty and prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in invasive isolates, Int J Infect Dis, vol.52, pp.59-61, 2016.

, Suivi des ventes de médicaments vétérinaires contenant des antibiotiques en France en 2015, Anses rapport annuel, 2016.

, Résapath, réseau d'épidémiosurveillance de l'antibiorésistance des bactéries pathogènes animales, ANSES, 2017.

. Arnaud, Surveillance du réseau de surveillance des bactéries multirésistantes aux antibiotiques (BMR) de 2012 à 2016, Bulletin national CPias, vol.10, 2018.

M. Asaduzzaman, Antimicrobial resistance: an urgent need for a planetary and ecosystem approach, Lancet Planet Health, vol.2, issue.3, pp.99-100, 2018.

R. Bain, R. Cronk, R. Hossain, S. Bonjour, K. Onda et al., , 2014.

A. Bauernfeind, H. Grimm, and S. Schweighart, A new plasmidic cefotaximase in a clinical isolate of Escherichia coli, Infection, vol.18, issue.5, pp.294-298, 1990.

E. R. Bevan, A. M. Jones, and P. M. Hawkey, Global epidemiology of CTX-M beta-lactamases: temporal and geographical shifts in genotype, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.72, issue.8, pp.2145-2155, 2017.

H. Blaak, A. H. Van-hoek, R. A. Hamidjaja, R. Q. Van-der-plaats, L. Kerkhof-de-heer et al., Distribution, Numbers, and Diversity of ESBL-Producing E. coli in the Poultry Farm Environment, PLoS One, vol.10, issue.8, p.135402, 2015.

R. Bonnet, Growing group of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: the CTX-M enzymes, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.48, issue.1, pp.1-14, 2004.

V. Bortolaia, L. Guardabassi, M. Trevisani, M. Bisgaard, L. Venturi et al., High diversity of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Escherichia coli isolates from Italian broiler flocks, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.54, issue.4, pp.1623-1626, 2010.

D. A. Boyd, S. Tyler, S. Christianson, A. Mcgeer, M. P. Muller et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.48, issue.10, pp.3758-3764, 2004.

C. H. Brower, S. Mandal, S. Hayer, M. Sran, A. Zehra et al.,

P. Das, R. Singh, J. P. Singh, R. Gill, and . Laxminarayan, The Prevalence of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia Coli in Poultry Chickens and Variation According to Farming Practices in, Environ Health Perspect, vol.125, issue.7, p.77015, 2017.

E. D. Brown and G. D. Wright, Antibacterial drug discovery in the resistance era, Nature, vol.529, issue.7586, pp.336-343, 2016.

K. G. Byrne-bailey, W. H. Gaze, P. Kay, A. B. Boxall, P. M. Hawkey et al., Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.53, issue.2, pp.696-702, 2009.

J. Campos, J. Mourao, L. Silveira, M. Saraiva, C. B. Correia et al., Imported poultry meat as a source of extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant CMY-2-producing Salmonella Heidelberg and Salmonella Minnesota in the European Union, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.51, issue.1, pp.151-154, 2014.

R. Cantón, M. Akóva, Y. Carmeli, C. G. Giske, Y. Glupczynski et al.,

. Carbapenemases, Rapid evolution and spread of carbapenemases among Enterobacteriaceae in Europe, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, issue.5, pp.413-431, 2012.

R. Capita and C. Alonso-calleja, Antibiotic-resistant bacteria: a challenge for the food industry, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, vol.53, issue.1, pp.11-48, 2013.

A. Carattoli, Resistance plasmid families in Enterobacteriaceae, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.53, issue.6, pp.2227-2238, 2009.

A. Carattoli, Plasmids in Gram negatives: molecular typing of resistance plasmids, Int J Med Microbiol, vol.301, issue.8, pp.654-658, 2011.

A. Carattoli, Plasmids and the spread of resistance, Int J Med Microbiol, vol.303, issue.6-7, pp.298-304, 2013.

A. Carattoli, L. Villa, D. Fortini, and A. Garcia-fernandez, Contemporary IncI1 plasmids involved in the transmission and spread of antimicrobial resistance in Enterobacteriaceae, 2018.

T. Casella, M. C. Nogueira, E. Saras, M. Haenni, and J. Y. Madec, Int J Food Microbiol, vol.257, pp.271-275, 2017.

M. A. Caudell, C. Mair, M. Subbiah, L. Matthews, R. J. Quinlan et al., Identification of risk factors associated with carriage of resistant Escherichia coli in three culturally diverse ethnic groups in Tanzania: a biological and socioeconomic analysis, Lancet Planet Health, vol.2, issue.11, pp.489-497, 2018.

J. D. Cavallo, R. Fabre, F. Jehl, C. Rapp, and E. Garrabé, Bêtalactamines " EMC -Maladies Infectieuses, vol.1, pp.129-202, 2004.

A. Chatterjee, M. Modarai, N. R. Naylor, S. E. Boyd, R. Atun et al., Quantifying drivers of antibiotic resistance in humans: a systematic review, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.18, issue.12, pp.368-378, 2018.

B. Chen, K. Yuan, X. Chen, Y. Yang, T. Zhang et al., Metagenomic Analysis Revealing Antibiotic Resistance Genes (ARGs) and Their Genetic Compartments in the Tibetan Environment, Environ Sci Technol, vol.50, issue.13, pp.6670-6679, 2016.

. Coi, Rapport annuel, 2015.

T. M. Coque, F. Baquero, and R. Canton, Increasing prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Europe, Euro Surveill, vol.13, issue.47, 2008.

T. M. Coque, A. Novais, A. Carattoli, L. Poirel, J. Pitout et al., Dissemination of clonally related Escherichia coli strains expressing extendedspectrum beta-lactamase CTX-M-15, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.14, issue.2, pp.195-200, 2008.

P. Cornejo-juarez, J. A. Suarez-cuenca, P. Volkow-fernandez, J. Silva-sanchez, H. Barrios-camacho et al., , 2016.

P. Cortes, V. Blanc, A. Mora, G. Dahbi, J. E. Blanco et al.,

G. Alonso, J. Bou, M. Blanco, and . Llagostera, Isolation and characterization of potentially pathogenic antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli strains from chicken and pig farms in Spain, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.76, issue.9, pp.2799-2805, 2010.

J. L. Cottell, M. A. Webber, and L. J. Piddock, Persistence of transferable extended-spectrumbeta-lactamase resistance in the absence of antibiotic pressure, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.56, issue.9, pp.4703-4706, 2012.

J. M. Cox and A. Pavic, Advances in enteropathogen control in poultry production, J Appl Microbiol, vol.108, issue.3, pp.745-755, 2010.

. Cpias-reunion, Réseau de surveillance régional des résistances au antibiotiques La Réunon, p.48, 2016.

N. V. Cuong, P. Padungtod, G. Thwaites, and J. J. Carrique-mas, Antimicrobial Usage in Animal Production: A Review of the Literature with a Focus on Low-and Middle-Income Countries, Antibiotics (Basel), vol.7, issue.3, 2018.

M. M. D'andrea, F. Arena, L. Pallecchi, and G. M. Rossolini, CTX-M-type beta-lactamases: a successful story of antibiotic resistance, Int J Med Microbiol, vol.303, issue.6-7, pp.305-317, 2013.

V. M. D'costa, C. E. King, L. Kalan, M. Morar, W. W. Sung et al., Antibiotic resistance is ancient, Nature, vol.477, issue.7365, pp.457-461, 2011.

M. De-been, V. F. Lanza, M. Toro, J. Scharringa, W. Dohmen et al., Dissemination of cephalosporin resistance genes between Escherichia coli strains from farm animals and humans by specific plasmid lineages, PLoS Genet, vol.10, issue.12, p.1004776, 2014.

J. W. Decousser, L. Poirel, and P. Nordmann, Characterization of a chromosomally encoded extended-spectrum class A beta-lactamase from Kluyvera cryocrescens, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.45, issue.12, pp.3595-3598, 2001.

. Dgal, Mayotte: Synthèse illustrée du recensement agricole 2010, 2011.

C. Dierikx, A. Van-essen-zandbergen, K. Veldman, H. Smith, and D. Mevius, Increased detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli isolates from poultry, Vet Microbiol, vol.145, issue.3-4, pp.273-278, 2010.

C. M. Dierikx, J. A. Van-der-goot, H. E. Smith, A. Kant, and D. J. Mevius, Presence of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia coli in the broiler production pyramid: a descriptive study, PLoS One, vol.8, issue.11, p.79005, 2013.

C. M. Dierikx, E. Van-duijkeren, A. H. Schoormans, A. Van-essen-zandbergen, K. Veldman et al.,

K. Huijsdens, J. A. Van-der-zwaluw, D. J. Wagenaar, and . Mevius, Occurrence and characteristics of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-and AmpC-producing clinical isolates derived from companion animals and horses, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.67, issue.6, pp.1368-1374, 2012.

V. Diwan, S. P. Chandran, A. J. Tamhankar, C. Lundborg, and R. Macaden, , 2012.

W. Dohmen, A. Dorado-garcia, M. J. Bonten, J. A. Wagenaar, D. Mevius et al., Risk factors for ESBL-producing Escherichia coli on pig farms: A longitudinal study in the context of reduced use of antimicrobials, PLoS One, vol.12, issue.3, p.174094, 2017.

E. S. Donkor, M. J. Newman, and D. Yeboah-manu, Epidemiological aspects of non-human antibiotic usage and resistance: implications for the control of antibiotic resistance in Ghana, Trop Med Int Health, vol.17, issue.4, pp.462-468, 2012.

A. Dorado-garcia, D. J. Mevius, J. J. Jacobs, I. M. Van-geijlswijk, J. W. Mouton et al., , 2016.

A. Dorado-garcia, J. H. Smid, W. Van-pelt, M. J. Bonten, A. C. Fluit et al., Molecular relatedness of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from humans, animals, food and the environment: a pooled analysis, J Antimicrob Chemother, 2017.

E. Sayed, F. , G. Sapriel, N. Fawal, A. Gruber et al., In-Host Adaptation of Salmonella enterica Serotype Dublin during Prosthetic Hip Joint Infection, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.24, issue.12, pp.2360-2363, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02155387

. Eucast, Comité de l'antibiogramme de la Société Française de Microbiologie, 2015.

E. G. Evers, A. Pielaat, J. H. Smid, E. Van-duijkeren, F. B. Vennemann et al.,

. Chardon, Comparative Exposure Assessment of ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli through Meat Consumption, PLoS One, vol.12, issue.1, p.169589, 2017.

C. Ewers, A. Bethe, T. Semmler, S. Guenther, and L. H. Wieler, Extended-spectrum betalactamase-producing and AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from livestock and companion animals, and their putative impact on public health: a global perspective, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, issue.7, p.646, 2012.

L. Falgenhauer, C. Imirzalioglu, K. Oppong, C. W. Akenten, B. Hogan et al., Detection and Characterization of ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli From Humans and Poultry in Ghana, Front Microbiol, vol.9, p.3358, 2018.

. Fao, Drivers, dynamics and epidemiology of antimicrobial resistances in animal production, Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016.

O. Fao, Antimicrobial Resistance: A manual for developing national action plans

O. Fao, . Who, . Insic, . Unicef, and . Wb, Contributing to One World, One Health: A Strategic Framework for Reducing Risks of Infectious Diseases at the Animal-Human-Ecosystems Interface, 2008.

B. Faye, Le rôle de l'élevage dans la lutte contre la pauvreté, Revue Élev. Méd. vét. Pays trop, vol.54, issue.3-4, pp.231-238, 2001.

F. Reunion, , 2015.

D. Fitzpatrick and F. Walsh, Antibiotic resistance genes across a wide variety of metagenomes, FEMS Microbiol Ecol, vol.92, issue.2, 2016.

E. G. Foley, L. S. Hartley, and N. J. , The effect of penicillin on staphylococci and streptococci commonly associated with bovine mastitis, J Food Technol, vol.8, pp.129-133, 1946.

N. Grall, V. Lazarevic, N. Gaia, C. Couffignal, C. Laouenan et al., Unexpected persistence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the faecal microbiota of hospitalised patients treated with imipenem, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.50, issue.1, pp.81-87, 2017.

R. Grami, W. Mansour, W. Mehri, O. Bouallegue, N. Boujaafar et al., Euro Surveill, vol.21, issue.8, p.30144, 2015.

P. J. Guerin, R. F. Grais, J. A. Rottingen, A. J. Valleron, G. Shigella et al., Using European, 2007.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01557309

V. Guernier, E. Lagadec, C. Cordonin, G. L. Minter, Y. Gomard et al., Human Leptospirosis on Reunion Island, Indian Ocean: Are Rodents the (Only) Ones to Blame?, PLoS Negl Trop Dis, vol.10, issue.6, p.4733, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01371145

A. M. Hammerum, J. Larsen, V. D. Andersen, C. H. Lester, T. S. Skovgaard-skytte et al.,

H. Olsen, R. L. Mordhorst, F. M. Skov, Y. Aarestrup, and . Agerso, Characterization of extendedspectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli obtained from Danish pigs, pig farmers and their families from farms with high or no consumption of third-or fourth-generation cephalosporins, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.69, issue.10, pp.2650-2657, 2014.

A. Hartmann, A. Locatelli, L. Amoureux, G. Depret, C. Jolivet et al., Occurrence of CTX-M Producing Escherichia coli in Soils, Cattle, and Farm Environment in France (Burgundy Region), Front Microbiol, vol.3, p.83, 2012.

P. M. Hawkey, Prevalence and clonality of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Asia, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.14, pp.159-165, 2008.

P. M. Hawkey, The 2017 Garrod Lecture: Genes, guts and globalization, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.73, issue.10, pp.2589-2600, 2018.

P. M. Hawkey and A. M. Jones, The changing epidemiology of resistance, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.64, pp.3-10, 2009.

, Haut Conseil de la Santé Publique: 37 pages, HCSP, 2010.

M. Hiroi, F. Yamazaki, T. Harada, N. Takahashi, N. Iida et al., Prevalence of extendedspectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in food-producing animals, J Vet Med Sci, vol.74, issue.2, pp.189-195, 2012.

J. Hordijk, D. J. Mevius, A. Kant, M. E. Bos, H. Graveland et al., Within-farm dynamics of ESBL/AmpC-producing Escherichia coli in veal calves: a longitudinal approach, Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol.68, issue.11, pp.2468-2476, 2013.

P. M. Huijbers, M. De-kraker, E. A. Graat, A. H. Van-hoek, M. G. Van-santen et al., Prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in humans living in municipalities with high and low broiler density, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.19, issue.6, pp.256-259, 2013.

C. Humeniuk, G. Arlet, V. Gautier, P. Grimont, R. Labia et al., Beta-lactamases of Kluyvera ascorbata, probable progenitors of some plasmid-encoded CTX-M types, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.46, issue.9, pp.3045-3049, 2002.

H. S. Hurd, J. D. Mckean, R. W. Griffith, I. V. Wesley, and M. H. Rostagno, Salmonella enterica infections in market swine with and without transport and holding, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.68, issue.5, pp.2376-2381, 2002.

B. T. Huynh, M. Padget, B. Garin, P. Herindrainy, E. Kermorvant-duchemin et al., Burden of bacterial resistance among neonatal infections in low income countries: how convincing is the epidemiological evidence?, BMC Infect Dis, vol.15, p.127, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-01259488

. Iacg, Surveillance and monitoring for antimicrobial use and resistance, 2018.

. Insee, , 2016.

. Jevons, Celbenin-resistant staphylococci, Br Med J, vol.1, pp.124-125, 1961.

L. H. Kahn, Confronting zoonoses, linking human and veterinary medicine, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.12, issue.4, pp.556-561, 2006.

S. Kariuki, R. Onsare, J. Mwituria, R. Ng'etich, C. Nafula et al., FAO/WHO Project Report. Improving Food Safety in Meat Value Chains in Kenya, pp.172-179, 2013.

H. Knothe, P. Shah, V. Krcmery, M. Antal, and S. Mitsuhashi, Transferable resistance to cefotaxime, cefoxitin, cefamandole and cefuroxime in clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Serratia marcescens, Infection, vol.11, issue.6, pp.315-317, 1983.

G. K. Kozak, P. Boerlin, N. Janecko, R. J. Reid-smith, and C. Jardine, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.75, issue.3, pp.559-566, 2009.

E. Lagadec, Y. Gomard, G. L. Minter, C. Cordonin, E. Cardinale et al.,

M. Goodman, P. Tortosa, and K. Dellagi, Identification of Tenrec ecaudatus, a Wild Mammal Introduced to Mayotte Island, as a Reservoir of the Newly Identified Human Pathogenic Leptospira mayottensis, PLoS Negl Trop Dis, vol.10, issue.8, p.4933, 2016.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01371143

H. Laube, A. Friese, C. Salviati, B. Guerra, and U. Rosler, Transmission of ESBL/AmpCproducing Escherichia coli from broiler chicken farms to surrounding areas, Vet Microbiol, vol.172, issue.3-4, pp.519-527, 2014.

R. Laxminarayan and R. R. Chaudhury, Antibiotic Resistance in India: Drivers and Opportunities for Action, PLoS Med, vol.13, issue.3, p.1001974, 2016.

B. Lazarus, D. L. Paterson, J. L. Mollinger, and B. A. Rogers, Do human extraintestinal Escherichia coli infections resistant to expanded-spectrum cephalosporins originate from foodproducing animals? A systematic review, Clin Infect Dis, vol.60, issue.3, pp.439-452, 2015.

M. A. Leverstein-van-hall, C. M. Dierikx, J. Stuart, G. M. Voets, M. P. Van-den-munckhof et al., Dutch patients, retail chicken meat and poultry share the same ESBL genes, plasmids and strains, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.17, issue.6, pp.873-880, 2011.

Q. Li, Y. Zhu, K. Yin, L. Xu, C. Yin et al., Purification of recombinant IpaJ to develop an indirect ELISA-based method for detecting Salmonella enterica serovar Pullorum infections in chickens, BMC Vet Res, vol.15, issue.1, p.3, 2019.

B. L. Ligon, Penicillin: its discovery and early development, Semin Pediatr Infect Dis, vol.15, issue.1, pp.52-57, 2004.

Y. Y. Liu, Y. Wang, T. R. Walsh, L. X. Yi, R. Zhang et al.,

D. Yu, H. Gu, X. Ren, L. Chen, D. Lv et al., Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China: a microbiological and molecular biological study, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.16, issue.2, pp.161-168, 2016.

W. Loftie-eaton, K. Bashford, H. Quinn, K. Dong, J. Millstein et al., Compensatory mutations improve general permissiveness to antibiotic resistance plasmids, Nat Ecol Evol, vol.1, issue.9, pp.1354-1363, 2017.

J. Y. Madec and M. Haenni, Antimicrobial resistance plasmid reservoir in food and foodproducing animals, Plasmid, vol.99, pp.72-81, 2018.

A. P. Magiorakos, A. Srinivasan, R. B. Carey, Y. Carmeli, M. E. Falagas et al.,

G. Hindler, B. Kahlmeter, D. L. Olsson-liljequist, L. B. Paterson, J. Rice et al., Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.18, issue.3, pp.268-281, 2012.

G. Marcade, C. Deschamps, A. Boyd, V. Gautier, B. Picard et al., Replicon typing of plasmids in Escherichia coli producing extended-spectrum betalactamases, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.63, issue.1, pp.67-71, 2009.

J. L. Martinez, The role of natural environments in the evolution of resistance traits in pathogenic bacteria, Proc Biol Sci, vol.276, pp.2521-2530, 1667.

Y. Matsumoto, F. Ikeda, T. Kamimura, Y. Yokota, and Y. Mine, Novel plasmid-mediated betalactamase from Escherichia coli that inactivates oxyimino-cephalosporins, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.32, issue.8, pp.1243-1246, 1988.

C. Mattern, Le marché informel du médicament à Madagascar : une revanche populaire, 2017.

C. A. Mcnulty, D. M. Lecky, L. Xu-mccrae, D. Nakiboneka-ssenabulya, K. T. Chung et al.,

M. Thomas, A. Thomas, K. Alvarez-buylla, S. Turner, S. Shabir et al., CTX-M ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae: estimated prevalence in adults in England in 2014, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.73, issue.5, pp.1368-1388, 2018.

G. C. Mead, W. R. Hudson, and M. H. Hinton, , 1995.

R. J. Mesa, V. Blanc, A. R. Blanch, P. Cortes, J. J. Gonzalez et al., Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in different environments (humans, food, animal farms and sewage), J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.58, issue.1, pp.211-215, 2006.

G. B. Michael, C. Freitag, S. Wendlandt, C. Eidam, A. T. Fessler et al., Emerging issues in antimicrobial resistance of bacteria from food-producing animals, Future Microbiol, vol.10, issue.3, pp.427-443, 2015.

G. Miltgen, R. A. Bonnin, C. Avril, T. Benoit-cattin, D. Martak et al., Outbreak of IMI-1 carbapenemase-producing colistin-resistant Enterobacter cloacae on the French island of Mayotte (Indian Ocean), Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.52, issue.3, pp.416-420, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01982352

G. Miltgen, C. E. Traversier, N. Marichal, A. Jaffar-bandjee, M. C. Meenowa et al., , 2014.

, Prévalence des entérobactéries BLSE chez les animaux d'élevage sur plusieurs îles de l'Océan Indien. Réunion Interdisciplinaire de Chimiothérapie Anti-Infectieuse

C. Mircovich, C. C. Sanders, P. Bayon-auboyer, M. Dubroca, S. Rugraff et al., Modes d'élevage des porcs et prévalence de E. coli résistants aux antimicrobiens, Journées Recherche Porcine, vol.36, pp.365-370, 2004.

B. Mirelis, F. Navarro, E. Miro, R. J. Mesa, P. Coll et al., Community transmission of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.9, issue.8, pp.1024-1025, 2003.

S. S. Mo, A. M. Urdahl, K. Madslien, M. Sunde, L. L. Nesse et al., What does the fox say? Monitoring antimicrobial resistance in the environment using wild red foxes as an indicator, PLoS One, vol.13, issue.5, p.198019, 2018.

. Morris, Uses of Epidemiology, 1957.

R. Mraidi, Modélisation et contrôle de la transmission du virus de la maladie de Newcastle dans les élevages aviaires familiaux de Madagascar, p.202, 2014.

C. J. Munday, G. M. Whitehead, N. J. Todd, M. Campbell, and P. M. Hawkey, Predominance and genetic diversity of community-and hospital-acquired CTX-M extended-spectrum betalactamases in York, UK, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.54, issue.3, pp.628-633, 2004.

M. Nadimpalli, Y. Vuthy, A. De-lauzanne, L. Fabre, A. Criscuolo et al., Meat and Fish as Sources of Extended-Spectrum beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli, Cambodia, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.25, issue.1, 2019.

B. Nagy and P. Z. Fekete, Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in veterinary medicine, Int J Med Microbiol, vol.295, issue.6-7, pp.443-454, 2005.

M. L. Nelson, A. Dinardo, J. Hochberg, and G. J. Armelagos, Brief communication: Mass spectroscopic characterization of tetracycline in the skeletal remains of an ancient population from Sudanese Nubia 350-550 CE, Am J Phys Anthropol, vol.143, issue.1, pp.151-154, 2010.

V. T. Nguyen, J. J. Carrique-mas, T. H. Ngo, H. M. Ho, T. T. Ha et al.,

V. M. Hoang, J. A. Pham, A. Wagenaar, Q. H. Hardon, C. Thai et al., ). of Vietnam, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.70, issue.7, pp.2144-2152, 2015.

V. T. Nguyen, D. Jamrozy, S. Matamoros, J. J. Carrique-mas, H. M. Ho et al., Limited contribution of non-intensive chicken farming to ESBL-producing Escherichia coli colonization in humans in Vietnam: an epidemiological and genomic analysis, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.74, issue.3, pp.561-570, 2019.

N. T. Nhung, N. V. Cuong, J. Campbell, N. T. Hoa, J. E. Bryant et al.,

V. B. Trung, G. Hien, S. Thwaites, J. Baker, and . Carrique-mas, of Vietnam, vol.81, pp.812-820, 2015.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00891396

J. O'neill, Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a crisis for the health and wealth of nation, 2014.

A. R. Omran, The epidemiologic transition: a theory of the epidemiology of population change, Milbank Q, vol.83, issue.4, pp.731-757, 1971.

, Plan d'action mondial pour combattre la résistance aux antimicrobiens, OMS, 2016.

J. Oteo, M. Perez-vazquez, and J. Campos, Extended-spectrum [beta]-lactamase producing Escherichia coli: changing epidemiology and clinical impact, Curr Opin Infect Dis, vol.23, issue.4, pp.320-326, 2010.

I. Overdevest, I. Willemsen, M. Rijnsburger, A. Eustace, L. Xu et al., Extendedspectrum beta-lactamase genes of Escherichia coli in chicken meat and humans, The Netherlands, Emerg Infect Dis, vol.17, issue.7, pp.1216-1222, 2011.

I. T. Overdevest, M. Heck, K. Van-der-zwaluw, X. Huijsdens, M. Van-santen et al., Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Klebsiella spp. in chicken meat and humans: a comparison of typing methods, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.20, issue.3, pp.251-255, 2014.

G. Pappas, Socio-economic, industrial and cultural parameters of pig-borne infections, Clin Microbiol Infect, vol.19, issue.7, pp.605-610, 2013.

L. Poirel, C. Leviandier, and P. Nordmann, Prevalence and genetic analysis of plasmidmediated quinolone resistance determinants QnrA and QnrS in Enterobacteriaceae isolates from a French university hospital, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.50, issue.12, pp.3992-3997, 2006.

S. Rahelinirina, J. M. Duplantier, J. Ratovonjato, O. Ramilijaona, M. Ratsimba et al., Study on the movement of Rattus rattus and evaluation of the plague dispersion in Madagascar, Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis, vol.10, issue.1, pp.77-84, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00836185

H. C. Rakotonirina, B. Garin, F. Randrianirina, V. Richard, A. Talarmin et al., Molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant extended-spectrum ?-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae isolated in Antananarivo, Madagascar, BMC Microbiol, vol.13, p.85, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-00835131

L. Randall, K. Heinrich, R. Horton, L. Brunton, M. Sharman et al., , 2014.

P. Renault, J. L. Solet, D. Sissoko, E. Balleydier, S. Larrieu et al., A major epidemic of chikungunya virus infection on Reunion Island, Am J Trop Med Hyg, vol.77, issue.4, p.727, 2005.

L. Richter, E. M. Du-plessis, S. Duvenage, and L. Korsten, Occurrence, Identification, and Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Extended-Spectrum and AmpC beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae from Fresh Vegetables, Foodborne Pathog Dis, 2019.

F. Robin, B. R. , V. S. , B. O. , P. et al., , 2014.

T. P. Robinson, D. P. Bu, J. Carrique-mas, E. M. Fevre, M. Gilbert et al., Antibiotic resistance is the quintessential One Health issue, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, vol.110, issue.7, pp.377-380, 2016.

E. K. Rousham, L. Unicomb, and M. A. Islam, Human, animal and environmental contributors to antibiotic resistance in low-resource settings: integrating behavioural, epidemiological and One Health approaches, Proc Biol Sci, vol.285, 1876.

J. C. Russell, D. Ringler, A. Trombini, and M. Le-corre, The island syndrome and population dynamics of introduced rats, Oecologia, vol.167, issue.3, pp.667-676, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00852827

P. Sanders, B. A. Chauvin, C. Toulain, and P. , Utilisation des antibiotiques en élevage et enjeux de santé publique, INRA Productions Animales, vol.24, issue.2, pp.199-204, 2011.

I. Santman-berends, M. A. Gonggrijp, J. J. Hage, A. E. Heuvelink, A. Velthuis et al., Prevalence and risk factors for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase or AmpC-producing Escherichia coli in organic dairy herds in the Netherlands, J Dairy Sci, vol.100, issue.1, pp.562-571, 2017.

I. M. Santman-berends, M. A. Gonggrijp, J. J. Hage, A. E. Heuvelink, A. Velthuis et al., Prevalence and risk factors for extended-spectrum beta-lactamase or AmpCproducing Escherichia coli in organic dairy herds in the Netherlands, J Dairy Sci, vol.100, issue.1, pp.562-571, 2017.

A. Schmid, S. Hormansdorfer, U. Messelhausser, A. Kasbohrer, C. Sauter-louis et al., Prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli on Bavarian dairy and beef cattle farms, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.79, issue.9, pp.3027-3032, 2013.

R. M. Schmithausen, S. R. Kellner, S. V. Schulze-geisthoevel, S. Hack, S. Engelhart et al., Eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and of Enterobacteriaceae expressing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases on a model pig farm, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.81, issue.21, pp.7633-7643, 2015.

C. W. Schwabe, Veterinary Medicine and Human Health, 1969.

T. Stalder, L. M. Rogers, C. Renfrow, H. Yano, Z. Smith et al., Emerging patterns of plasmid-host coevolution that stabilize antibiotic resistance, Sci Rep, vol.7, issue.1, p.4853, 2017.

D. Stupica, L. Lusa, M. N. Klevisar, S. Terzic, M. Pirs et al., Should we consider faecal colonisation with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in empirical therapy of community-onset sepsis?, Int J Antimicrob Agents, vol.50, issue.4, pp.564-571, 2017.

M. D. Tamang, H. M. Nam, G. C. Jang, S. R. Kim, M. H. Chae et al.,

. Lim, Molecular characterization of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase-producing and plasmid-mediated AmpC beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli isolated from stray dogs in South Korea, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.56, issue.5, pp.2705-2712, 2012.

S. Y. Tan and Y. Tatsumura, Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin, Singapore Med J, vol.56, issue.7, pp.366-367, 2015.

A. Tran-dien, S. L. Hello, C. Bouchier, and F. X. Weill, Early transmissible ampicillin resistance in zoonotic Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium in the late 1950s: a retrospective, wholegenome sequencing study, Lancet Infect Dis, vol.18, issue.2, pp.207-214, 2018.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02019786

G. Uk, Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) systems map, 2014.

T. P. Van-boeckel, C. Brower, M. Gilbert, B. T. Grenfell, S. A. Levin et al., Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.112, issue.18, pp.5649-5654, 2015.

B. A. Van-bunnik, A. Ssematimba, T. J. Hagenaars, G. Nodelijk, M. R. Haverkate et al.,

R. A. Hayden, M. C. Weinstein, M. C. Bootsma, and . Jong, Small distances can keep bacteria at bay for days, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, vol.111, issue.9, pp.3556-3560, 2014.

E. Van-duijkeren, C. C. Wielders, C. M. Dierikx, A. Van-hoek, P. Hengeveld et al., Long-term carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in the general population in the Netherlands, Clin Infect Dis, 2017.

M. W. Van-goethem, R. Pierneef, O. K. Bezuidt, Y. Van-de-peer, D. A. Cowan et al.,

. Makhalanyane, , 2018.

A. Hoek, C. Veenman, A. Florijn, P. M. Huijbers, E. A. Graat et al., Longitudinal study of ESBL Escherichia coli carriage on an organic broiler farm, J Antimicrob Chemother, vol.73, issue.12, pp.3298-3304, 2018.

C. L. Ventola, The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats, P T, vol.40, issue.4, pp.277-283, 2015.

A. I. Vitas, D. Naik, L. Perez-etayo, and D. Gonzalez, Increased exposure to extendedspectrum beta-lactamase-producing multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae through the consumption of chicken and sushi products, Int J Food Microbiol, vol.269, pp.80-86, 2018.

E. M. Wellington, A. B. Boxall, P. Cross, E. J. Feil, W. H. Gaze et al., , 2013.

, At UN, global leaders commit to act on antimicrobial resistance, WHO, 2016.

C. C. Wielders, A. Van-hoek, P. D. Hengeveld, C. Veenman, C. M. Dierikx et al.,

W. Smit, D. J. Van-der-hoek, S. C. Heederik, C. B. De-greeff, E. Maassen et al., , 2017.

G. D. Wright, The antibiotic resistome: the nexus of chemical and genetic diversity, Nat Rev Microbiol, vol.5, issue.3, pp.175-186, 2007.

Y. Yom-tov and E. Geffen, Geographic variation in body size: the effects of ambient temperature and precipitation, Oecologia, vol.148, issue.2, pp.213-218, 2006.

D. Yong, M. A. Toleman, C. G. Giske, H. S. Cho, K. Sundman et al., , 2009.

. India, Antimicrob Agents Chemother, vol.53, issue.12, pp.5046-5054

A. K. Zaidi, W. C. Huskins, D. Thaver, Z. A. Bhutta, Z. Abbas et al., Hospitalacquired neonatal infections in developing countries, Lancet, vol.365, issue.9465, pp.1175-1188, 2005.

X. Zhang, Y. Li, B. Liu, J. Wang, C. Feng et al., , 2014.

N. Gay, A. Leclerc, M. Laval, G. Miltgen, M. Jégo et al., Risk factors of Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae occurrence in farms in Reunion, Madagascar and Mayotte islands, Vet Sci, vol.5, issue.1, p.22, 2017.